Solubility is the property of a solid Solid is one of the major states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other,, liquid Liquid is one of the three classical states of matter. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, but, like a solid, it resists compression. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension,, or gaseous Gas is one of three classical states of matter. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms chemical substance In chemistry, a chemical substance is a material with a specific chemical composition called solute In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent to dissolve Dissolution is the process by which a solid or liquid forms a homogeneous mixture with a solvent . This can be explained as a breakdown of the crystal lattice into individual ions, atoms or molecules and their transport into the solvent in a liquid Liquid is one of the three classical states of matter. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, but, like a solid, it resists compression. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, solvent A solvent is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning , as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, to form a homogeneous solution In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. The solubility of a substance strongly depends on the used solvent as well as on temperature and pressure. The pressure also affects the solution whether it is gas or liquid, like temperature. So, in definition of solubility we always mention the pressure and temperature "fixed". The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution.
The solvent is generally a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture Mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances the identities of which are retained. Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture is a type of mixture the composition of which cannot be identified. A heterogeneous mixture is a type of mixture the composition of which can easily be identified since.[1] One also speaks of solid solution A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. Such a mixture is considered a solution rather than a compound when the crystal structure of the solvent remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and when the mixture remains in a single homogeneous phase.This often happens when the two elements involved are close, but rarely of solution in a gas (see vapor-liquid equilibrium Vapor-liquid equilibrium, abbreviated as VLE by some, is a condition where a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium with each other, a condition or state where the rate of evaporation (liquid changing to vapor) equals the rate of condensation (vapor changing to liquid) on a molecular level such that there is no net (overall) vapor-liquid instead)
The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (fully miscible In chemistry, miscibility is the property of liquids to mix in all proportions, forming a homogeneous solution. In principle, the term applies also to other phases , but the main focus is on the solubility of one liquid in another. Water and ethanol, for example, are miscible since they mix in all proportions[2] ) such as ethanol Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a powerful psychoactive drug, best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and in modern thermometers. Ethanol is one of the oldest recreational drugs. In common usage, it is often referred to in water Water is a ubiquitous chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all known forms of life, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride Silver chloride is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ag in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds.
Under certain conditions the equilibrium solubility Solubility equilibrium is any type of chemical equilibrium relationship between solid and dissolved states of a compound at saturation can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated The term supersaturation refers to a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances. It can also refer to a vapor of a compound that has a higher pressure than the vapor pressure of that compound solution, which is metastable Metastability is a general scientific concept which describes states of delicate equilibrium. A system is in a metastable state when it is in equilibrium but is susceptible to fall into lower-energy states with only slight interaction. It is analogous to being at the bottom of a small valley when there is a deeper valley close by — a local.[3]
Molecular view
Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution Solvation, also sometimes called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of molecules of a solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. As ions dissolve in a solvent they spread out and become surrounded by solvent molecules and phase separation (e.g. precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction or by diffusion in a solid. When the reaction occurs in a liquid, the solid formed is called the precipitate, and the liquid remaining above the solid is called the supernate. Powders derived from precipitation have also historically been of solids Solid is one of the major states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other,). The solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate.
The term solubility is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis Solvolysis is a special type of nucleophilic substitution or elimination where the nucleophile is a solvent molecule. For certain nucleophiles, there are specific terms for the type of solvolysis reaction. For water, the term is hydrolysis; for alcohols, it is alcoholysis; for ammonia, it is ammonolysis. For example, many metals and their oxides An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides. Oxides result when elements are oxidized by oxygen in air. Combustion of hydrocarbons affords the two principal oxides of carbon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials that are are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid," whereas the aqueous acid degrades the solid to irreversibly give soluble products. It is also true that most ionic solids are degraded by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent the process is referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis.
When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an aqueous An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant formula. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, or dissolved in water. As water is an excellent solvent as well as naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry suspension In chemistry, a suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. Usually they must be larger than 1 micrometer. The internal phase is dispersed throughout the external phase (fluid) through mechanical agitation, with the use of certain excipients or suspending agents. Unlike colloids, of ferrous hydroxide Iron hydroxide or ferrous hydroxide is a compound produced when iron(II) ions, from a compound such as iron(II) sulfate react with hydroxide ions. Iron(II) hydroxide itself is practically white, but even traces of oxygen impart it with a greenish tinge. If the solution was not deoxygenated and the iron reduced, the precipitate can vary in color, Fe(OH)2, will contain the series [Fe(H2O)6 − x(OH)x](2 − x)+ as well as other oligomeric In chemistry, an oligomer consists of less than five monomer units , in contrast to a polymer that, at least in principle, consists of an unlimited number of monomers. Dimers, trimers and tetramers are oligomers. Many oils are oligomeric, such as liquid paraffin. Plasticizers are oligomeric esters widely used to soften thermoplastics such as PVC species. Furthermore, the solubility of ferrous hydroxide and the composition of its soluble components depends on pH pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It approximates but is not equal to p[H], the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+). Crudely, this matches the number of places behind the decimal point, so for example 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001 molar HCl should be. In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute which is thermodynamically stable, and the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution (in the example above, all the iron-containing complexes).[citation needed]
Factors affecting solubility
Solubility is defined for specific phases In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space , throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform. Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, and chemical composition. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (. For example, the solubility of aragonite Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the two common, naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, Ca and calcite Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (Ca in water are expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs Polymorphism in materials science is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure. Polymorphism can potentially be found in any crystalline material including polymers, minerals, and metals, and is related to allotropy, which refers to elemental solids. The complete morphology of a material is described by of calcium carbonate Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca and have the same chemical formula A chemical formula or molecular formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound.
The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces In physics, chemistry, and biology, intermolecular forces are forces that act between stable molecules or between functional groups of macromolecules. Intermolecular forces include momentary attractions between molecules, diatomic free elements, and individual atoms. These forces, most notably London Dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions between the solvent and solute, and the entropy Entropy is an important part of the second law of thermodynamics. Thermodynamic systems consist of of objects, e.g. atoms or molecules, which "carry" energy. In applied thermodynamics, as a matter of convention, entropy is measured in Joules of energy per degree Kelvin . If thermodynamic systems are described using thermal energy instead change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.
Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming In chemistry, a coordination complex or metal complex, is a structure consisting of a central atom or ion , bonded to a surrounding array of molecules or anions (ligands, complexing agents). The atom within a ligand that is directly bonded to the central atom or ion is called the donor atom. Polydentate (multiple bonded) ligands can form a chelate anions (ligands In coordination chemistry, a ligand is an ion, or molecule that binds to a central metal-atom to form a coordination complex. The bonding between metal and ligand generally involves formal donation of one or more of the ligand's electron pairs. The metal-ligand bonding can range from covalent to more ionic. Furthermore, the metal-ligand bond order) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect The presence of a common ion suppresses the ionization of a weak acid or a weak base. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the ionic strength The ionic strength of a solution is a measure of the concentration of ions in that solution. Ionic compounds, when dissolved in water, dissociate into ions. The total electrolyte concentration in solution will affect important properties such as the dissociation or the solubility of different salts. One of the main characteristics of a solution of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility equilibrium Solubility equilibrium is any type of chemical equilibrium relationship between solid and dissolved states of a compound at saturation.
For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of gold in high-temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude higher when the redox potential is controlled using a highly-oxidizing Fe3O4-Fe2O3 redox buffer In geology, a redox buffer is an assemblage of minerals or compounds that constrains oxygen fugacity as a function of temperature. Knowledge of the redox conditions at which a rock forms and evolves can be important for interpreting the rock history. Iron, sulfur, and manganese are three of the relatively abundant elements in the Earth's crust than with a moderately-oxidizing Ni-NiO buffer.[4]
Solubility (metastable) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking, on the specific or molar surface area of the solute). For quantification, see the equation in the article on solubility equilibrium Solubility equilibrium is any type of chemical equilibrium relationship between solid and dissolved states of a compound at saturation. For highly defective crystals, solubility may increase with the increasing degree of disorder. Both of these effects occur because of the dependence of solubility constant on the Gibbs energy of the crystal. The last two effects, although often difficult to measure, are of practical importance.[citation needed] For example, they provide the driving force for precipitate aging Ostwald ripening is an observed phenomenon in solid solutions which describes the evolution of an inhomogenous structure over time. The phenomenon was first described by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1896. When a phase precipitates out of a solid, energetic factors will cause large precipitates to grow, drawing material from the smaller precipitates, which (the crystal size spontaneously increasing with time).
Temperature
The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent typically depends on temperature. For many solids dissolved in liquid water, the solubility increases with temperature up to 100 °C.[5] In liquid water at high temperatures, (e.g., that approaching the critical temperature In physical chemistry, thermodynamics, chemistry and condensed matter physics, a critical point, also called a critical state, specifies the conditions at which a phase boundary ceases to exist. There are multiple types of critical points such as vapor-liquid critical points and liquid-liquid critical points), the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water; the lower dielectric constant The relative static permittivity of a material under given conditions is a measure of the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux. It is the ratio of the amount of stored electrical energy when a voltage is applied, relative to the permittivity of a vacuum. The relative static permittivity is the same as the relative results in a less polar solvent The most common solvent in everyday life is water. Most other commonly-used solvents are organic chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point and evaporate easily or can be removed by distillation, leaving the dissolved substance behind. To distinguish between solutes and solvents, solvents are usually.
Gaseous Gas is one of three classical states of matter. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (to minimum which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases[6]), but more soluble in organic solvents.[5]
The chart shows solubility curves for some typical solid inorganic salts Salt is a dietary mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride that is essential for animal life, but can be toxic to many land plants. Salt flavor is one of the basic tastes, making salt one of the oldest, most ubiquitous food seasoning. Salting is an important method of food preservation (temperature is in degrees celcius).[7] Many salts behave like barium nitrate and disodium hydrogen arsenate, and show a large increase in solubility with temperature. Some solutes (e.g. NaCl in water) exhibit solubility which is fairly independent of temperature. A few, such as cerium(III) sulfate, become less soluble in water as temperature increases. This temperature dependence is sometimes referred to as "retrograde" or "inverse" solubility. Occasionally, a more complex pattern is observed, as with sodium sulfate, where the less soluble decahydrate crystal loses water of crystallization at 32 °C to form a more soluble anhydrous phase.[citation needed]
The solubility of organic compounds nearly always increases with temperature. The technique of recrystallization, used for purification of solids, depends on a solute's different solubilities in hot and cold solvent. A few exceptions exist, such as certain cyclodextrins.[8]
Pressure
For condensed phases (solids and liquids), the pressure dependence of solubility is typically weak and usually neglected in practice. Assuming an ideal solution, the dependence can be quantified as:
where the index i iterates the components, Ni is the mole fraction of the ith component in the solution, P is the pressure, the index T refers to constant temperature, Vi,aq is the partial molar volume of the ith component in the solution, Vi,cr is the partial molar volume of the ith component in the dissolving solid, and R is the universal gas constant[9].
The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For example, precipitation fouling of oil fields and wells by calcium sulfate (which decreases its solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time.
Solubility of gases
Henry's law is used to quantify the solubility of gases in solvents. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the solvent. This relationship is written as:
where k is a temperature-dependent constant (for example, 769.2 L•atm/mol for dioxygen (O2) in water at 298 K), p is the partial pressure (atm), and c is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid (mol/L).
Polarity
A popular aphorism used for predicting solubility is "like dissolves like".[10] This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar polarity to itself. This view is rather simplistic, since it ignores many solvent-solute interactions, but it is a useful rule of thumb. For example, a very polar (hydrophilic) solute such as urea is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar methanol, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene. In contrast, a non-polar or lipophilic solute such as naphthalene is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene.[11]
Liquid solubilities also generally follow this rule. Lipophilic plant oils, such as olive oil and palm oil, dissolve in non-polar solvents such as alkanes, but are less soluble in polar liquids such as water.
Synthetic chemists often exploit differences in solubilities to separate and purify compounds from reaction mixtures, using the technique of liquid-liquid extraction.
Insolubility and spontaneous phase separation does not mean that dissolution is disfavored by enthalpy. Quite the contrary, in the case of water and hydrophobic substances, hydrophobic hydration is reasonably exothermic and enthalpy alone should favor it. It appears that entropic factors — the reduced freedom of movement of water molecules around hydrophobic molecules — lead to an overall hydrophobic effect.
Rate of dissolution
Dissolution is not always an instantaneous process. It is fast when salt and sugar dissolve in water but much slower for a tablet of aspirin or a large crystal of hydrated copper(II) sulfate. These observations are the consequence of two factors: the rate of solubilization is related to the solubility product and the surface area of the material. The speed at which a solid dissolves may depend on its crystallinity or lack thereof in the case of amorphous solids and the surface area (crystallite size) and the presence of polymorphism. Many practical systems illustrate this effect, for example in designing methods for controlled drug delivery. Critically, the dissolution rate depends on the presence of mixing and other factors that determine the degree of undersaturation in the liquid solvent film immediately adjacent to the solid solute crystal. In some cases, solubility equilibria can take a long time to establish (hours, days, months, or many years; depending on the nature of the solute and other factors). In practice, it means that the amount of solute in a solution is not always determined by its thermodynamic solubility, but may depend on kinetics of dissolution (or precipitation).
The rate of dissolution and solubility should not be confused as they are different concepts, kinetic and thermodynamic, respectively. The solubilization kinetics, as well as apparent solubility can be improved after complexation of an active ingredient with cyclodextrin. This can be used in the case of drug with poor solubility.[12]
Quantification of solubility
Solubility is commonly expressed as a concentration, either by mass (g of solute per kg of solvent, g per dL (100 mL) of solvent), molarity, molality, mole fraction or other similar descriptions of concentration. The maximum equilibrium amount of solute that can dissolve per amount of solvent is the solubility of that solute in that solvent under the specified conditions. The advantage of expressing solubility in this manner is its simplicity, while the disadvantage is that it can strongly depend on the presence of other species in the solvent (for example, the common ion effect).
Solubility constants are used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of relatively low solubility (see solubility equilibrium). The solubility constant is a special case of an equilibrium constant. It describes the balance between dissolved ions from the salt and undissolved salt. The solubility constant is also "applicable" (i.e. useful) to precipitation, the reverse of the dissolving reaction. As with other equilibrium constants, temperature can affect the numerical value of solubility constant. The solubility constant is not as simple as solubility, however the value of this constant is generally independent of the presence of other species in the solvent.
The Flory-Huggins solution theory is a theoretical model describing the solubility of polymers. The Hansen Solubility Parameters and the Hildebrand solubility parameters are empirical methods for the prediction of solubility. It is also possible to predict solubility from other physical constants such as the enthalpy of fusion.
The partition coefficient (Log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in a hydrophobic solvent (octanol) and a hydrophilic solvent (water). The logarithm of these two values enables compounds to be ranked in terms of hydrophilicity (or hydrophobicity).
Applications
Solubility is of fundamental importance in a large number of scientific disciplines and practical applications, ranging from ore processing, to the use of medicines, and the transport of pollutants.
Solubility is often said to be one of the "characteristic properties of a substance," which means that solubility is commonly used to describe the substance, to indicate a substance's polarity, to help to distinguish it from other substances, and as a guide to applications of the substance. For example, indigo is described as "insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated sulfuric acid".[citation needed]
Solubility of a substance is useful when separating mixtures. For example, a mixture of salt (sodium chloride) and silica may be separated by dissolving the salt in water, and filtering off the undissolved silica. The synthesis of chemical compounds, by the milligram in a laboratory, or by the ton in industry, both make use of the relative solubilities of the desired product, as well as unreacted starting materials, byproducts, and side products to achieve separation.
Another example of this is the synthesis of benzoic acid from phenylmagnesium bromide and dry ice. Benzoic acid is more soluble in an organic solvent such as dichloromethane or diethyl ether, and when shaken with this organic solvent in a separatory funnel, will preferentially dissolve in the organic layer. The other reaction products, including the magnesium bromide, will remain in the aqueous layer, clearly showing that separation based on solubility is achieved. This process, known as liquid-liquid extraction, is an important technique in synthetic chemistry.
Solubility of ionic compounds in water
Some ionic compounds (salts) dissolve in water, which arises because of the attraction between positive and negative charges (see: solvation). For example, the salt's positive ions (e.g. Ag+) attract the partially-negative oxygens in H2O. Likewise, the salt's negative ions (e.g. Cl−) attract the partially-positive hydrogens in H2O. Note: oxygen is partially-negative because it is more electronegative than hydrogen, and vice-versa (see: chemical polarity).
- AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
However, there is a limit to how much salt can be dissolved in a given volume of water. This amount is given by the solubility product, Ksp. This value depends on the type of salt (AgCl vs. NaCl, for example), temperature, and the common ion effect.
One can calculate the amount of AgCl that will dissolve in 1 liter of water, some algebra is required.
- Ksp = [Ag+] × [Cl−] (definition of solubility product)
- Ksp = 1.8 × 10−10 (from a table of solubility products)
[Ag+] = [Cl−], in the absence of other silver or chloride salts,
- [Ag+]2 = 1.8 × 10−10
- [Ag+] = 1.34 × 10−5
The result: 1 liter of water can dissolve 1.34 × 10−5 moles of AgCl(s) at room temperature. Compared with other types of salts, AgCl is poorly soluble in water. In contrast, table salt (NaCl) has a higher Ksp and is, therefore, more soluble.
Main article: Solubility chart| Soluble | Insoluble |
|---|---|
| Group I and NH4+ compounds | Carbonates (Except Group I, NH4+ and uranyl compounds) |
| Nitrates | Sulfites (Except Group I and NH4+ compounds) |
| Acetates (Ethanoates) (Except Ag+ compounds) | Phosphates (Except Group I and NH4+ compounds) |
| Chlorides, bromides and iodides (Except Ag+, Pb2+, Cu+ and Hg22+) | Hydroxides and oxides (Except Group I, NH4+, Ba2+, Sr2+ and Tl+) |
| Sulfates (Except Ag+, Pb2+, Ba2+, Sr2+ and Ca2+) | Sulfides (Except Group I, Group II and NH4+ compounds) |
Solubility of organic compounds
The principle outlined above under polarity, that like dissolves like, is the usual guide to solubility with organic systems. For example, petroleum jelly will dissolve in gasoline because both petroleum jelly and gasoline are hydrocarbons. It will not, on the other hand, dissolve in alcohol or water, since the polarity of these solvents is too high. Sugar will not dissolve in gasoline, since sugar is too polar in comparison with gasoline. A mixture of gasoline and sugar can therefore be separated by filtration, or extraction with water.
Solubility in non-aqueous solvents
Most publicly available solubility values are those for solubility in water.[13] The reference also lists some for non-aqueous solvents. Solubility data for non-aqueous solvents is currently being collected via an open notebook science crowdsourcing project.[14][15]
Solid solution
This term is often used in the field of metallurgy to refer to the extent that an alloying element will dissolve into the base metal without forming a separate phase. The solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a phase diagram which give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in solid solution. In the solid's crystalline structure, the 'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position, for example: chromium in iron) or can take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position, for example: carbon in iron).
In microelectronic fabrication, solid solubility refers to the maximum concentration of impurities one can place into the substrate.
Incongruent dissolution
Many substances dissolve congruently, i.e., the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match. However, some substances may dissolve incongruently, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the "primary solid" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase. However, generally, some primary solid also remains and a complex solubility equilibrium establishes. For example, dissolution of albite may result in formation of gibbsite.[16]
- NaAlSi3O8(s) + H+ + 7H2O = Na+ + Al(OH)3(s) + 3H4SiO4.
In this case, the solubility of albite is expected to depend on the solid-to-solvent ratio. This kind of solubility is of great importance in geology, where it results in formation of metamorphic rocks.
See also
| Look up soluble or solubility in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Biopharmaceutics Classification System
- Dühring's rule
- Flexible SPC water model
- Hot water extraction
- Hydrotrope
- Raoult's law
- Simulations Plus
- Solubility equilibrium
External links
- VCClab.org, "ALOGPS" free interactive calculation of aqueous solubility of compounds at Virtual Computational Chemistry Laboratory using several algorithms.
- ACDlabs.com? ACD/Solubility DB aqueous solubility prediction
- Simulations-plus.com, S+Sw, an aqueous solubility prediction model.
References
- ^ Yuen, C. (2003), Element, Compound and Mixture
- ^ Clugston M. and Fleming R. (2000), p.108
- ^ Cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk: from Online Medical Dictionary, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne.
- ^ I.Y. Nekrasov, "Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Genesis of Gold Deposits", Taylor & Francis, 1996, p.135-136 Books.Google.com.
- ^ a b John W. Hill, Ralph H. Petrucci, General Chemistry, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1999.
- ^ P. Cohen (editor), "The ASME handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems", The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1989, page 442.
- ^ Data taken from the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 27th edition, Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1943.
- ^ Salvatore Filippone, Frank Heimanna and André Rassat (2002). "A highly water-soluble 2+1 b-cyclodextrin–fullerene conjugate". Chem. Commun. 2002: 1508–1509. doi:10.1039/b202410a.
- ^ E.M.Gutman, "Mechanochemistry of Solid Surfaces", World Scientific Publishing Co., 1994.
- ^ Kenneth J. Williamson, Macroscale and Microscale Organic Experiments, p40, 2nd edition, D. C, Heath, Lexington, Mass., 1994.
- ^ Data taken from the Merck Index, 7th edition, Merck & Co., 1960.
- ^ Gil A, Chamayou A, Leverd E, Bougaret J, Baron M, Couarraze G (2004). "Evolution of the interaction of a new chemical entity, eflucimibe, with gamma-cyclodextrin during kneading process". Eur. J. Pharm. Sciences, 23, 123-129.
- ^ NIST solubility database
- ^ ONS Solubility challenge
- ^ Solubility of Vanillin in various non-aqueous solvents
- ^ O.M.Saether & P. de Caritat (ed.) "Geochemical processes, weathering and groundwater recharge in catchments", Taylor & Francis, Rotterdam, 1997, page 6.
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